Upa-vikṣepa

Three types of mental or physical sorrow can be distinguished: adhyatmika, or spiritual sorrow, which refers to mental and physical suffering; adhibhautika, or metaphysical sorrow, which arises from interactions with other people or animals; and Adhidaivika, or sorrow brought on by natural disasters like landslides, floods, or heat waves (Tomar, 2024). The foundational principles of Buddhist philosophy, particularly the Four Noble Truths, which conceptualize duḥkha (suffering) as an inherent part of life, with identifiable causes and a clear path to its cessation through the Eightfold Path (Aich, 2013). Mindfulness can develop insight into duḥkha, not just to relieve symptoms but to address the root insight associated with craving and identification (Teasdale & Chaskalson, 2011).

When desires are not met or situations do not fit expectations, feelings of sadness, misery, dejection Tomar (2024), frustration, dejection, or mental anguish Yogapedia (2023b), occur in the mind and cause physical and mental discomfort. It’s listed alongside symptoms such as suffering (duḥkha), tremors of the limbs (angamejayatva), and irregular breathing (śvāsapraśvāsa) as indicators of mental disturbance and distraction (Yogapedia, 2023b).

Restlessness, physical unsteadiness, and mental anxiousness (Tomar, 2024). It is identified as one of four symptomatic obstacles (upādhis) that disrupt meditation and spiritual progress. This term literally means “tremors or unsteadiness of the limbs,” and refers to involuntary physical agitation that arises when the mind is overly focused on external distractions rather than inner stillness. Closely related is Shvasa Prashvasa, a symptom describing uneven or irregular breathing, signaling mental disturbance or anxiety. According to Yogapedia, these conditions stem from preoccupation with external stimuli and can manifest as physiological symptoms of trembling, labored breath, or agitation, when the mind and body remain ungrounded. The text advises that practices like meditation and pranayama (regulated breathing) can help quell these symptoms by calming the mind and inducing internal balance (Yogapedia, 2023a).

Irregularities in the breath inhalation. Breathing problems are subsequently brought on by this restlessness, resulting in laboured breathing patterns (Tomar, 2024). Conscious and sustained practice of slow, deep breathing has been shown to influence the brain, particularly the respiratory centers located in the medulla oblongata. Over time, this leads to a reduction in the normal breathing rate, which in turn improves respiratory efficiency. Psychological benefits have also been observed, including reduced anger and anxiety, likely due to the calming effect of slowed respiration. This reduction in emotional reactivity contributes to decreased energy loss and enhanced concentration, ultimately supporting greater overall efficiency. In a study by Vyas et al., individuals who practiced both short-term and long-term meditation showed significantly higher values in vital capacity, tidal volume, and breath-holding duration compared to non-meditators. Notably, long-term meditators exhibited greater vital capacity and expiratory pressure than short-term practitioners. These findings support the idea that awareness and regulation of breath, especially slow and alternate breathing, can play a key role in enhancing respiratory function and mental stability (Paikaray et al., 2018).

Irregularities in the way breath is exhaled. As a result of this restlessness, breathing becomes difficult, leading to laboured respiratory abnormalities, particularly breathing difficulties (Tomar, 2024). Anxiety, stress and a distracted mind (citta-vikshepa, or that which scatters the thoughts) can lead to irregular breathing, or shvasa prashvasa (Yogapedia, 2023b).